The continuity of the legacy and heritage of the Harappans

 The Harappan civilization is the first urban civilization in India and it was the largest urbanized civilization of the bronze age on the planet, spanning more area than ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia combined. It also hosted among the largest population of the world of its times, with people inhabiting the sophisticated urban cities with facilities like drainage, sewers, bathrooms, reservoirs, planned streets, fortifications, granaries etc.

The decline of such a grand urban civilization mostly happened due to various factors such as climate change and drying up of Ghaggar-Hakra-Nara or the Sarasvati river. Majority of the sites of the Harappan civilization which were located near Sarasvati river were abandoned by around 1900 BCE after the river lost its waters.

Many argue that after its decline, the Harappan civilization left no cultural legacy which passed on into later historic times. They argue that the Harappan culture simply vanished after the supposed arrival of nomadic-pastoral Aryans from the steppes which is theorized to have happened a few centuries after the decline of Harappan urban phase. The Aryans supposedly   sowed seeds to an entirely new Vedic culture. But such arguments are not factual and are based on conjectures and prejudices. This note highlights few of the clear cultural legacies of the Harappan civilization, India’s first civilization, Into the historical times.

1. The Jewelry of Harappans

Many of the  jewelry and ornaments of Harappan era have passed on into historical times among Hindu women. For instance the famous ‘Dancing Girl’ figure  of Mohenjo-Daro wears the same set of bangles which we see in historic periods. The women of northwestern India and Pakistan still wear the exact same bangles.

‘Dancing girl’ from Mohenjo-Daro wearing bangles. Source:Wikimedia

Harappan silver bangles. Source: The Rigvedic People: ‘Invaders’?/’Immigrants’? or Indigenous? by BB Lal

Kushana era bronze figure of a dancing girl from Mathura wearing the same bangles. Source: Early Indian Bronzes by PK Agrawala

The Mauryan era Didarganj Yakshi from Patna wearing the same bangles. Source: Wikimedia

A woman from Kutch, Gujarat wearing the same bangles. Source:Wikimedia

Anklets seen in Harappan sculptures are also seen in early historic art and worn by Indian women today.

Harappan bronze fragment of a sculpture wearing an anklet… Source:Further Excavations at Mohenjo-Daro by Ernest Mackay

Kushana era sculpture of a Yakshi from Punjab, note the anklets she’s wearing. Source: Wikimedia

Kushana era sculpture of a Yakshi from Mathura wearing anklets.Source:Wikimedia

Rajasthani woman wearing anklets. Source: Alamy Stock Photo

An interesting ornament which we see in Harappan figurines are the waist ornament or kamarband which can be popularly seen in early historic art and worn by modern Indian women as well

Harappan terracotta figure wearing waist ornament. Source:Further Excavations at Mohenjo-Daro by Ernest Mackay

Another Harappan terracotta figure showing the same waist ornament.. Source: Further Excavations at Mohenjo-Daro by Ernest Mackay

Yet another terracotta figure from Harappan civilization showing the same waist ornament or kamarband. Source: Excavations at Harappa by MS Vats

Kushana era sculpture from Mathura depicting a female wearing similar waist ornament. Source: Wikimedia

Female sculpture from Kushana era Mathura depicting waist ornament. Source: Wikimedia

Sculpture of a Yakshi from Shunga era Mathura depicting waist ornament as in Harappan figures. Source: Wikimedia

Another interesting jewelry found in Harappan figures is the Tikka ornament worn in the forehead by Indian women along with traces of  sindhur or vermillion powder smeared on the forehead of married Hindu women. These can be seen in early historic art as well.

Harappan terracotta figure depicting Tikka ornament on forehead. Source : Further Excavations at Mohenjo-Daro by Ernest Mackay

Harappan figurine with trace of red paint on forehead. Source : How Deep are the Roots of Indian Civilization? Archaeology Answers by BB Lal

Shunga era medallion from Bharhut stupa depicting a woman looking at a mirror and applying sindhur on forehead. Source: Wikimedia

Another medallion from Bharhut depicts a female with Tikka ornament on forehead. Source: Wikimedia

A modern Hindu wedding where the groom is applying Sindoor to his bride wearing Tikka on forehead.. Source: Wikimedia

2. Divine symbols

Various divine symbols which are popular among Hindus even today are encountered in Harappan sites. For examples there are numerous seals depicting divine symbols like Swastikas and Endless Knots. These symbols continued to be used in historic times as auspicious symbols and decorations. 

Harappan seal depicting Swastika and Endless Knot. Source: Corpus of Indus Seals and Inscriptions by JP Joshi and Asko Parpola

Various Harappan Swastika seals. Source:Corpus of Indus Seals and Inscriptions by JP Joshi and Asko Parpola

Early historic coin from Taxila depicting Swastika and other symbols. Source:Wikimedia

Harappan and medieval depictions of Endless Knot symbols. Source:The Harappan Heritage and the Aryan Problem by Michel Danino

3.The Divine Arch

In Hindu-Buddhist-Jain iconography It is common to see Divine Arch or Prabhavali surrounding a deity symbolizing the  sacred aura. This iconography has its roots in Harappan depictions and is also found in early historic coinage and iconography.

A Harappan seal showing a deity under divine arch being worshiped by a figure along with a ram nearby. Source: Corpus of Indus Seals and Inscriptions by JP Joshi and Asko Parpola

A Harappan tablet showing a deity under divine arch. Source:Corpus of Indus Seals and Inscriptions by JP Joshi and Asko Parpola

A punch-marked coin of Kosala kingdom showing a deity under a sacred arch (top right). Source : Kosala State Region : C. 600 – 470 BC Silver Punchmarked Coinage by Paul Murphy

Coin from Panchala kingdom showing deity  under sacred arch dated 1st century BCE or CE. Source : Ancient Indian Coins – A Comprehensive Catalogue by Wilfried Pieper

Depiction from Bodhgaya Stupa of Indrasala cave, where Buddha is symbolized by the empty throne surrounded by Prabhavali arch as per the early Buddhist iconography. Source: Wikimedia

Image of the Buddha from Gandhara, dating to Gupta period showing his divine aura or Prabhavali in background. Source: Wikimedia.

4. Veneration of Pipal tree

Pipal or Ashvattha in Sanskrit is among the most sacred trees associated with Hindu and Buddhist beliefs. Atharva Veda 6.95.1 hails the Pipal tree as the seat of Gods and the Agnyadheya Brahmana of Katha shakha equates the entire Vedic tradition with the Ashvattha tree. It states that the Vedas are the the roots of Ashvattha, the Vedic chandas (metres) are the leaves and the various Vedic schools (shakhas) are it's branches. You can find Pipal tree shrines grown in various Hindu temples. Pipal iconography is quite common in Harappan civilization and it’s veneration would go back to Harappan times.

The famous Harappan ‘Divine Adoration’ seal depicting a deity between Pipal branches worshiped by another figure along with a ram and 7 distinct figures below.. Source:Corpus of Indus Seals and Inscriptions by JP Joshi and Asko Parpola

Harappan pottery with Pipal leaf designs. Source: WIkimedia

Harappan seal depicting two ‘Unicorns’ along with the sacred Pipal tree. Source: Wikimedia

Pipal tree shrine over Shiva Linga at Gokarneshwar Mahadev temple, Nepal.. Source: Wikimedia

5. Tree shrines

The popular depictions of tree shrines or Vriksha Chaitya with sacred railings or Vedika seen in early historic coins and art can also be found in certain Harappan seals. These tree shrines were venerated as abodes of Yakshas and Yakshis, or the nature spirits. Veneration of pipal trees as shrines and as abodes of Gods continues even today as noted above.

Harappan tablets depicting railed tree shrines . Source Corpus of Indus Seals and Inscriptions by JP Joshi and Asko Parpola

Post-Mauryan coin from Taxila, depicting railed tree shrine along with other symbols such as Swastika, Arched-Hill, and Taurine.

Sacred tailed tree shrine as depicted on a relief from Bharhut Stupa, Shunga era.

Railed tree shrine as depicted on a relief from SanchI Stupa, Satavahana era.

6. Yoga

Various Harappan seals depict Yogic meditative posture. For instance the famous ‘Proto-Shiva’  or ‘Pashupati’ seal depicts a horned divinity seated in a Yogic posture. This exact same Yogic iconography can be seen in early historic coins as well. For instance in early historic coins from the Ujjain region, we see multi-headed deities seated in the same posture as in the Proto-Shiva seal. Apart from this , there are also various terracotta figures depicting Yogic postures.

A Harappan terracotta figure seated and holding hands in Yogic Anjali Mudra. Source: Excavations at Harappa by MS Vats

The famous Harappan ‘Pashupati’ or ‘Proto-Shiva’ seal. Source: Corpus of Indus Seals and Inscriptions by JP Joshi & Asko Parpola

A Harappan Yogic sea. Source: Corpus of Indus Seals and Inscriptions by JP Joshi & Asko Parpola

An ancient coin from Ujjain region showing God Shiva in the same Yogic posture as in the Harappan seals. Dated to the Shunga era. Source: Ancient Indian Coins – A Comprehensive Catalogue by Wilfried Pieper

7. Shiva worship

Many have written on the supposed Linga-like objects from the Harappan sites. These may have been prototypes of historical Linga worship. However, phallic imagery is common in many cultures and not unique to India, but in support of the view that proto-Shaivite worship was prevalent in Harappan civilization, we have images of Yogic depictions cited above as well. Some of the Yogic seals like the ‘Pashupati’ seal also depict ithyphallic imagery like in historical Shaiva images. Apart from that, there are also seals depicting Yogic deities being worshiped flanked by snakes. We know that Bhagavan Shiva is also associated with serpent imagery and is adorned with the serpent Vasuki as his garland.  All these suggest that there was indeed some proto-Shaivite worship happening among the Harappans. It may be that the historical Shaivite iconography inherited the serpent symbolism, Yogic elements and Linga worship from the bronze age Harappans.

Harappan Shiva Linga type object. Source: WIkimedia

A Liṅga type object discovered from Harappa. Source: Excavations at Harappa: Being an Account of Archaeological Excavations at Harappa Carried Out Between the Years 1920-21 and 1933-34, 2 Vols by MS Vats

Harappan seal depicting seated Yogic divinity being flanked by worshipers along with snakes..Source: Corpus of Indus Seals and Inscriptions by JP Joshi & Asko Parpola

Another seal depicting a Yogic divinity being worshiped by devotees and snakes.. Source:Corpus of Indus Seals and Inscriptions by JP Joshi & Asko Parpola

8. Fire Altars

The brick-made fire altars in multiple Harappan sites like Lothal, Kalibangan, Banawali and others strongly suggest the Vedic fire rituals which utilize brick altars have its roots in Harappan fire rituals and practices. This is an element central to the Vedic Hinduism.

Apsidal brick-made fire altar from Harappan site of  Banawali. Source Harappan Architecture and Civil Engineering by JP Joshi

Fire Brick-made‘pit’ altar from Harappan site of  Kalibangan along with animal bones and charcoal inside. Source: The Rigvedic People: ‘Invaders’?/’Immigrants’? or Indigenous? by BB Lal

Brick-made fire altar from contemporary times used in Hindu rituals. Source: Wikimedia

9. Sacred Conch

Shankha or Conch is a sacred symbol among Hindus. Atharva Veda hymn 10.4 glorifies Conch Shells. Harappan archaeologist JM Kenoyer had pointed out that conch shells were used as libation vessels and as trumpets by the Harappans. This is practiced by Hindus even today. Apart from that, the Harappan shells contained traces of vermillion, which is also used in Hindu rituals.

Harappan ritualistic conch shells. Source: The Harappan Heritage and the Aryan Problem by Michel Danino

Libation with milk in Hindu ritual. Source:Wikimedia

Blowing conch shell or Shankha by a Hindu priest. Source: Wikimedia

10. Sacred tanks

Archaeologists have noted that the structures like the ‘Great Bath’ of Mohenjo-Daro would’ve been prototypes of later sacred tanks or pushkarini  found in Hindu temples. Such tanks are commonly depicted in early historic coinage, there are also examples of terracotta tank shrines. This cult of tanks may very well have its roots in Harappan tradition.

The ‘Great Bath’ from Mohenjo-Daro. Source: Wikimedia

Shunga era coin from Ujjain depicting a sacred tank with fishes on top.. Source: Ancient Indian Coins Revisited  by Wilfried Pieper

Another coin from Ujjain region dated to Shunga period depicting a sacred tank near a railed-tree shrine.. Source: . Source: Ancient Indian Coins Revisited by Wilfried Pieper

Terracotta model of a sacred tank shrine along with image of a Goddess from Taxila.. Source: Art and Archaeology of Ancient India Earliest Times to the Sixth Century By Naman. Ahuja

Temple tank at Modhera Sun temple, Gujarat. Source: WIkimedia 

11 The seven figures

Harappan seals like the ‘Divine Adoration’ seal shown above have a row of 7 female figures. These figures are also encountered in other Harappan seals and the Vedic literature also often speaks of 7 sisters or 7 mothers as personifications of the Sapta Sindhu or 7 rivers. In the historic period, the 7 Matrika figures are also depicted, mostly associated with the God Skanda-Karttikeya. It is also interesting to note that at Kalibangan, a row of 7 fire altars were also discovered.

Harappan seal depicting 7 figures on top. Source: Corpus of Indus Seals and Inscriptions by JP Joshi & Asko Parpola  

Seven figures as depicted on a Harappan seal. Source: Corpus of Indus Seals and Inscriptions by JP Joshi & Asko Parpola

There are more cultural legacies left by the bronze age Harappans as noted by archaeologists, but the ones mentioned above are crucial and clearly attests to the fact that the Harappan traditions are still living through contemporary Hindu culture.

Apart from these cultural continuities, it seems that the legacy of the Harappan urbanism also continued into the historical times. For instance BB Lal had written how the gridded city planning came down to the historical times from the Harappans. He compared the gridded plan of the Harappan city of Kalibangan to the early historic city of Sisupalgarh and wrote:

 “And when we get as far back as the 3rd century BCF, We have the example of Sisupalgarh near Bhubaneshwar in Orissa, also following the grid pattern. This grid pattern also seems to have been the craze with the Harappans; and we reproduce here a plan in which the Lower City at Kalibangan also followed the grid pattern, the streets running north-south and east-west (Fig. 2.27). It would thus appear that the grid pattern of town-planning has come down to us from the Harappan times.” 

(From: How Deep are the Roots of Indian Civilization? Archaeology Answers by BB Lal)

Another interesting study by Mohan Pant and Shuji Funo also traces the continuity of Harappan town planning to the historical times. They wrote on how the Harappan city of Mohenjo Daro, early historic city of Sirkap and Thimi in Nepal follow the same gridded planning system. 

” Mohenjodaro was a reknowned city of Indus civilization, while Sirkap of Taxila, was an important cultural center in later half of first millennium BC. While both of the cities are archaeological remains, Thimi is still a living town. The three cities, apparently separated by enormous time span and geographic space, exhibit certain features that is striking to draw the attention of archaeologists and urban historians. This study finds that all the three settlements employ exactly the same grid dimension in making the division of urban blocks. The standard modules conform to ‘danda’ and ‘rajju’, which are stated in Arthasastra, the work of Kautilya who lived during the later quarter of 4th century BC” 

They conclude: 

“The next link of concern is between the early historic settlement of Sirkap and Mohenjodaro. It is to be born in mind that the archaeological reports on the remains of Taxila including the Bhir Mound have not yet discovered the material that can definitely date the foundation of these settlements. Later archaeological works in the region of Taxila, for instance, that of Saraikhola and late findings in the Hathial Mound, a few hundred meters away from Sirkap, have now given the evidences of settlement in Taxila contemporary to Indus period. Allchin describes the finding of pottery sherds in the Hathial Mound area that belonged to early Indus period as well as those of later periods, thus suggesting continuity of settlement in Taxila from as far back as the beginning of Indus period. The present study of the structural remains of Sirkap shows its link with Bhir Mound and Mohenjodaro tradition of town planning. Thus, if continuity in the inheritance of the town planning idea from Indus to Sirkap and Thimi in Kathmandu Valley is evident as this paper shows, it also appears from other findings that there was also the continuity of the people themselves who built their settlement upon this tradition.” 

(From: The Grid and Modular Measures in The Town Planning of Mohenjodaro and Kathmandu Valley by Mohan Pant and Shuji Funo)

Apart from this, the excavations at the early historic site of Kampil in the heart of Vedic Panchala kingdom had revealed astonishing continuity in city planning from Harappan times to the historic period. It seems that the early historic city of Kampilya followed the same city layout as the earlier Harappan city of Dholavira as per the excavators.. 

“Actually. the bricks and the terracotta fragments scattered on the surface could be traced to a date variable between the sixth century Bc and the first century AD. The excavations in collaboration with our Indian colleagues will be in a better position to determine this point, and to check the underlying potentialities therein. While talking about this project with the Director of the Excavations of the Archaeological Survey of India. Dr. Bisht, on January 28. 1998 we were surprised to find that the dimensions and the orientation of the Drupad Kila coincided exactly with those of Dholavira a mature Harappan town, excavated by the eminent archaeologist. One can see in the present publication, that the maps of these two ancient cities overlaps. This evidence could demonstrate a continuity of urban models from the Harappans until the Kusana’s  times, following a shift of human settlements from the missed course of Sarasvati towards Doab.” 

“Due to its striking resemblance to Drupad Kila, we cite the Harappan city of Dholavira recently unearthed by R.S. Bisht after excavations began in 1989. The rectangular shape of the city wall, it’s dimensions, orientation of it’s sides, and the off-centre position of gates are all similar to same elements in Drupad Kila, and provide layouts of two cities within the same shape”

(From: Kampilya: Quest for a Mahabharata City by Giuseppe Filippi and Bruno Marco Polo)

Most archaeologists of our times are also of the opinion that Harappan legacy continued into the historical period. Archeologist JM Kenoyer notes the cultural affinities between the Harappans and the early historic Indians. He writes: 

“However, there are strong connections between the art and technology of the Indus Valley civilization and the subsequent cultures of the Indian subcontinent. The concept of yoga is depicted on many Indus seals along with specific symbols that later are used in the iconography of Buddhist and Hindu ritual art: fish designs, swastikas, the stepped cross and the pipal leaf design. Many of the technologies, such as bead making, shell working, glazed faience and terracotta ceramic production, metallurgy, and even architectural forms continue on into the later cultures of the subcontinent. The standardized system of weights established in the Indus cities reemerges during the subsequent Early Historic Period around 300 B.C. and continues to be used in traditional trading even today.”

(From: The Ancient City of Harappa by JM Kenoyer)

In another instance he writes about the continuity in urban traditions of north-western regions of India since Harappan times.

“Renewed excavations at Bhir Mound. Taxila, have revealed more information on site planning and urban facilities, specifically the nature of sewerage systems during the Mauryan and early Kushana periods (Khattak and Khan 2001). These new excavations reveal the presence of wells for drawing water and covered drains that run under houses and streets to remove sewerage water. These discoveries indicate that Marshall’s observation of no wells in the city and no connected drains needs to be revised. Wells and drains are not a feature of early Chalcolithic sites in the Ganga region, and are not present in the Achaemenid settlements of Afghanistan and Iran. The fact that wells and drains and drains to remove polluting water feature prominently in earlier Indus settlements would suggest that their continued presence in the northwest is the the result of long-term continuities in indigenous urban architectural traditions.”

“In Pakistan, I have tried to present the case for a critical review of current models relating to the emergence and character of the second phase of urbanism in the northern subcontinent. Although the evidence is admittedly sparse and inconclusive, I feel that too much emphasis has been put on the Achaemenid expansion and the impact of Gangetic polities on the cultural developments in the Indus valley as a whole, and the northern cities in particular. On the basis of the evidence presented above I would argue for the presence of major politics in the Indus valley continuing from the Late Harappan right through to the Mauryan periods. Furthermore, given the important legacies of the Indus valley cities, I feel that we need to revise the way we look at the material culture and architectural traditions of the northern Indus valley. Instead of attributing everything to either the Gangetic region to the east or the Achaemenids to the west, we should assume that they emerge from indigenous processes and are only later modified by contact with these other regions. If this model of localized development in the northwest can be confirmed through future excavations and research, it calls into question many of the time-honored models for the emergence of “Indian” culture as being derived from a Gangetic homeland. A more complex model with multiple centers of influence may turn out to be more appropriate. “

(From: New Perspectives on the Mauryan and Kushana Periods by JM Kenoyer in Between the Empires: Society in India 300 BCE to 400 CE  edited by Patrick Olivelle )

Late Harappan archaeologist Gregory Possehl also noted unbroken continuity of the Harappan traditions into iron age Painted Grey Ware (PGW) layers.

“ Moreover, with the excavations at Dadheri and Baghwanpura,14 as well as Posturban Phase Harappan sites such as Hulas, Mitathal and Banawali, we now have a complete, unbroken cultural historical sequence linking the Mature Harappan settlements to the north Indian Early Iron Age, which is associated with Painted Gray Ware. Bringing the Harappans and Indo-Europeans together in time and place for a period of cultural synthesis is not an insurmountable problem in the cultural history of the Subcontinent. Getting archaeologists to stop thinking in terms of a single Indo-European migration is far more of a challenge.”

He further wrote about the legacy of the Harappans in northern India::

“ The descendants of the Indus Civilization in northern India flow gracefully into the peoples of the Early Historic there. And there are important continuities in the life of the peoples of historical India that can be traced back to the Indus Civilization, even earlier. Much of the subsistence system, including the “second revolution” in farming made possible by the large-scale use of millets and double cropping, has very deep roots. Elements of architecture, settlement planning, and location are also based on concepts that began during the Indus Age. There are other potentially important observations as well. For example, the form of ritual discipline we now know as yoga may be represented in an early form in the Indus Civilization. The most famous of these is the so-called Proto-Siva seal. Allchin has also pointed to a seal from Chanhu-daro that seems to represent the theme of male-heaven and female earth (Mother India) as related to the creation myth found in Vedic literature.”

(From: The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective by Greogory Possehl)

Another noted archaeologist late Raymond Allchin also wrote about the presence of Aryan elements in Harappan civilization citing the presence of Vedic fire altars att Kalibangan:

“At Kalibangan the curious ritual hearths (if they indeed are so) reported in domestic, public and civic situations are suggestive of a practice ancestral to the Indo-Aryan fire sacrifices, and it is tempting to see this as an indication of the presence of Indo-Aryan speakers already during the Harappan urban phase.”

Allchin further wrote about Vedic cultural synthesis already taking place during Harappan period itself::

“In that circumstances when we find (as suggested in discussing a seal from Chanhu-daro (Allchin 1985) that a Harappan seal appears to illustrate a recurrent mythological theme of the Rigveda, one interpretation may be that Harappan myths had by the time of its composition become identified with the ideology of the Vedic authors; another possible interpretation is that a Vedic myth had already been absorbed into the Harappan iconography during the life of the Indus civilization; a third interpretation may be in terms of an already prevailing cultural pluralism. Whatever the interpretation may be, this situation points to a fundamentally important conclusion: that this complex culture involved a deeply rooted Indian, even Indus, element as its dominant feature; while its ‘Aryan’ name derived from the recollection of a remembered, or imagined, ancestry by a tiny proportion of the population, from the language they had transmitted to an ever-growing number of the native population, and from the name by which the minority group referred to themselves, and were no doubt referred to by others eager to associate themselves with the dominant group.”

(From : The Archaeology of Early Historic South Asia: The Emergence of Cities and States by FR Allchin and George Erdosy)

While Allchin and Possehl viewed Aryans arriving in India during the mature Harappan period itself and synthesizing with local Harappan culture, they do not deny the cultural legacy left by the Harappans.

Thus, the cultural continuity from Harappan times is a consensus among most of the archaeologists. As the archaeologist Robin Cunningham write:

“ Moreover, as we have noted previously, whilst an earlier generation of scholars were focused on tracing discontinuities and the potential presence of human migrations and invasions , more recently, scholars have changed the focus somewhat in order to explore themes of continuity. In a few instances, this change has occurred in the same individual scholar. For example, in 1971 Professor D. P. Agrawal identified migrations of Aryans qnd discontinuity in his book the Copper Bronze Age in India ( 1971 : 240) but then went on to list no fewer than nine areas of continuity between the two urbanisations (the Indus and the Early Historic) in his 2007 book The Indus Civilization . Whilst Agrawal’s areas of continuity include ovens, circular grain pounding platforms and decorative and symbolic designs ( 2007 : 310), Shaffer had already expanded this to include the presence of large settlements; the construction of large units of public architecture , especially enclosing walls and water tanks; specialised craft industry; long-distance trading networks; a unifi ed system of weights and measures; and the use of a script (Shaffer 1993 : 59). Elstov has further advocated continuities, commenting that “Harappan religion had a domestic character similar in orthopraxy to that of Early Historic India” ( 2013 : 304) despite the decidedly uncertain “relation of Sanskrit literature to the Harappan culture” ( ibid 307).”

(From: The Archaeology of South Asia: From the Indus to Asoka, c.6500 BCE–200 CE by Robin Coningham and Ruth Young)

Hence, from all these points, we can say with confidence that the Harappan legacy passed on into the historic Hindus and the Harappan civilization marks the dawn of Indian or Hindu civilization and culture, including its Vedic elements. We do not need to look at the steppes or Central Asia to trace the roots of Hindu culture. Harappan legacy forms an essential part of  Indian or Hindu civilization, and it still lives through among Hindus and followers of other Dharmic faiths.